云南大学旅游文化学院本科生学年论文
题 目：On Characteristics and Application of English Euphemism
专业班级： 07级英语专业（3）班
作者姓名： xxxxx
作者学号： 20071200420
指导教师： xxxxx、
撰文时间： 2010年8月20日
On Characteristics and Application of English Euphemism
Contents
Abstract ······························································································································· ⅰ 摘要 ···································································································································· ⅱ Introduction ··························································································································· 1 1 The Origin and Definition of Euphemism ············································································ 2 2 The Characteristics of English Euphemism ········································································· 3 2.1 Universality ················································································································· 3 2.2 Having Division of the Sentimental Color ·································································· 3 2.3 Having Life ················································································································ 4 2.4 Sociality ······················································································································ 4 2.5 Re-symbolism ·············································································································· 4 2.6 Arbitrariness ················································································································ 5 2.7 Accuracy ····················································································································· 5 2.8 Conventionality ··········································································································· 5 3 The Application of English Euphemism in Daily Life ························································· 6 3.1 In Occupation Application ··························································································· 6
3.1.1 To Raise the Professional Status ········································································· 6 3.1.2 To Beautify Coarse, Grating Occupation ······························································ 7 3.1.3 To Use the Analogy······························································································ 7 3.2 In Education Application······························································································ 8 3.3 In Politics and War Application ···················································································· 8 3.4 In Disease Application ································································································· 9 3.5 In Age and Weight Application ·················································································· 10 3.6 In Sex Application ····································································································· 11 3.7 In Birth Application ··································································································· 11 Conclusion ·························································································································· 13 Bibliography ······················································································································· 14
On Characteristics and Application of English Euphemism
[Abstract]：In every society there are certain things that are supposed to be unspeakable. A fair number of words make someone embarrassed、unhappy、dislike or fear when used in communication. If we express the meaning in the direct way, we will make such impression which is vulgar, frivolous, and impolite. In order to avoid the embarrassment or ease the sting of harsh words, man has created euphemisms. In western cultures, many of the fields that people tend to euphemize widely are not different from anywhere in the world. This paper introduces the origin and definition of euphemism, the characteristics of English euphemism and the application of English euphemism and the causes of using euphemism, with much weight attached to the latter three.
[Key Words]：English euphemism taboo context characteristics application
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On Characteristics and Application of English Euphemism
[摘要]：在任何一个社会中，总有些不能直截了当说出来的话。在人们交际的过程中，有些词语使人尴尬，惹人不快，招人讨厌或令人害怕，如果直接表达出来会给人一种粗俗、轻浮、无礼的印象。因此在一些场合为了避免难堪，或减轻对人的感情伤害，人们创造了委婉语。在西方社会文化生活中，在很多领域，人们广泛地使用着委婉语，这和世界上多数地区是一样的。本文追溯了委婉语的历史渊源，界定了委婉语的概念，随后着重介绍了英语委婉语的特点及在各个领域的应用，并探讨了人们使用这些委婉语的原因。
[关键词]: 英语委婉语
禁忌语 语境 ii
特点 应用 On Characteristics and Application of English Euphemism
Introduction
Euphemism refers to mild, agreeable, or roundabout words used in place of coarse, painful, or offensive ones. Invention here being the mother of necessity, the need for euphemism arose. In every society, there are certain things that are not supposed to be speakable or mentioned directly. A fair number of words are labeled frivolous, vulgar, or at least inconsiderate. But in communication, for better maintaining social relationship and exchanging ideas, people have to resort to a kind of language, which can make distasteful ideas seem acceptable or even desirable. This type of language is defined as “euphemism” in linguistics and it comes in a variety of forms and is used for a variety of reasons. Unlike other figurative language devices, for example, the metaphor of poetry or prose, euphemism aims to surprise and entertain (Lee, 1966:125), strives to avoid offense by means of circumlocution. As a communicative skill---“feeling it like it is not (Time, 1978:164) euphemism abounds in our life.” Euphemisms are powerful linguistic devices which “are embedded so deeply in our language that few of us, even those on being plainspoken, ever get through a day without using them (Rawson, 1981:245).”
Much research has been done on euphemism because of its prominence in language. A lot of great works came into being during the study of euphemism, which lay a foundation for further research. In 1936, in his book The American Linguistic Meneken fully discussed why hundreds of euphemisms had been born and become popular on the basis of American history and social altered background. His book is a valuable legacy for euphemism study. In 1981, British linguist Hugh Rawson complied A Dictionary of Euphemism and other Double Talks which embodied the achievements of research on euphemism over the decades by many British and American linguists.
The euphemism is one phenomenon of language in human society, which is an important method of harmonizing the relationship between people. It is a figure of speech. English euphemism also becomes an inalienable part in topic of the Trans-Culture human relations.
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On Characteristics and Application of English Euphemism
1 The Origin and Definition of Euphemism
English euphemism has a long history, and many euphemism words come from The Bible .And in The Canterbury Tales written by Chaucer and plays and poems of Shakespeare, varities of euphemism words were applied. In Britain, the usage of euphemism could be traced back to 11th century. In that time, Genteel Vocabulary and Obscene Vocabulary were distinguished obviously. The former is just the precursor of euphemism. In the early 1580’s, English writer George Blunt first used word “euphemism”. It originates in Greek prefix “eu” which means “good, sounding well” and stem “pheme” which means “speech or saying”. People applied it in order to avoid mentioning things considered to be taboo and specific unpleasantnesses which relate to such things as accidents, illness, death, sex, excretion, the phenomenon of physiology and natural conduct and so on directly and talk about them in an euphemismistic way. Since 1970’s linguistic euphemism has become popular again. And euphemism, as a language phenomenon now, is applied very frequently and widely. American scholar Hugh Rawson once said: “The euphemism submerges our language that none of us can get down one day without using it, even the same for who brags themselves the straight forward person.” Hence, giving it an accurate definition is quite necessary:
First, George Blunt defined it as: a good or favorable interpretation of a bad word.
Second, in the Radom House College Dictionary it means: the substitution of a mild, indirect, or vague expression for one thought to be offensive, harsh or blunt. Third, its meaning is: used as an alternative to a dispreferred expression, in order to avoid possible loss of face: either one’s own face or through giving offense, that of the audience or of some third party. (Allen, K. and Burridge, K., 1991:18) Fourth, its definition is: that figure of speech which consists in the substitution of a word or expression of comparatively favorable implication or less unpleasant association, instead of the harsher or more offensive one that would more precisely designate what is intended. (Oxford English Dictionary, 1989)
Fifth, the substitution of a mild, indirect, or vague expression for one thought substituted. (Webster’s Encyclopedic Unabridged Dictionary of the English
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On Characteristics and Application of English Euphemism
language, 1996)
Sixth, euphemizing is generally defined as substituting an inoffensive or pleasant term for a more explicit, offensive one, thereby veneering the truth by using kind words. (Enright D.J., 1985)
Seventh, words used in place of one avoided as e.g. offensive, indecent, or alarming. (Oxford Concise Dictionary of Linguistics, Shanghai Foreign Languages Publishing House, 2000)
These definitions above, tell us different meanings, however, several similar features can be summarized as the following:
1. Euphemism is a substitution of unpleasant or taboo words. 2. Euphemism should be considered to be a kind of rhetoric skill.
3. Euphemism in the language should have the functions of softening, alleviating, concealing or showing politeness.
2 The Characteristics of English Euphemism
2.1 Universality
Euphemizing generally exists in almost every nation all over the world, no matter how civilized it is. And in every natural languages both large family of languages and languages of minorities, using euphemism is a common phenomenon. Because almost all cultures seem to have certain notions or things that people try to avoid mentioning directly. That is, nearly every culture has its own taboos. Though using euphemism doesn’t express directly, everyone familiar with English can understand what actually meant immediately. And plenty of usages of euphemizing of taboos are accepted commonly by the people.
2.2 Having Division of the Sentimental Color
Mentioning euphemism approximately, some are lofty, some are affectionate and some are the vulgar bodies. For example, in the expression of death “to die” in meaning a series of euphemism words, a part has the lofty color; Like “to expire” “to pay the debt of nature” “to sleep” and so on, but has another part for the affectionate of spoken language, slang or vulgar body, like \" to kick the buck \
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On Characteristics and Application of English Euphemism
go west”(张廷茂1996:451).To different people, the using of euphemism words is different. They have obvious division of the sentimental color.
2.3 Having Life
Some euphemisms having once completed its social intercourse mission would not be inexistence, but some then are given new life in the long-term usage, (its meanings) are accepted broadly and inherit to take over down, becoming fixed phrase language or direct expression synonym, and exist in vocabulary. Such as euphemism of the expression of liquor teases: “mediline”, “high cap”, “eye-opener” and so on; And also have some substitutions of trousers , “inexpressible”,
“unwhisperable”,
“unspeakable”,
“one-must-not-men”,
“indiscribable” and so on.
2.4 Sociality
The language is a kind of social phenomenon; the different society could not exert a same expression method. Even if in identical society’s different social classes, social stratums, even different professions in the identical social class, the social stratum as well as the quantity of people under different culture backgrounds using the euphemism should be also different. For example the word “dead”, in each society, in each culture has the different expression methods. According to the research statistics provided by the related scholars, in Chinese the expression of “dead” reaches more than 300, according to the incomplete statistics, in English it probably has more than 230. If taking into consideration of those tactful parlances of temporariness, its amount would be far over this number. Like person believing in Marxist will speak “to see a Marx”; Person believing in Christianity will say \"be with God”. In brief, the euphemizing would be inevitably applied if one wants to perform in the society.
2.5 Re-symbolism
From the definition of euphemism, we can know clearly that euphemism is using one expression to replace another. “That is to say, euphemism is a re-symbolizing
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On Characteristics and Application of English Euphemism
of things, ideas, or events already symbolized with precision in mind. Therefore people can’t randomly utilize an expression to euphemize the taboos. The re-symbolizing should provide clues to catch the intended meaning of the taboos and should sound indirect or pleasanter.” Hence, euphemism is a kind of substitution in fact; it is a manifestation of re-symbolism.
2.6 Arbitrariness
Euphemisms come from daily life, and most of them come from ordinary people. Thus, arbitrariness is one of the most important characteristics of modern euphemism. Once a man was interviewed on a farm on the west of Canada, he called bull “gentleman cow”. He used euphemism very optionally. And some expressions of going to the toilet are also applied freely. Such as “pass water”, “go to school”, and “wash one’s hand” and so on.
2.7 Accuracy
Stemming from human communication’s need, people do not state the matter directly, but use the relatively tactful expression —the usage of euphemism, thus, an identical matter has the different expression methods. Using of different expression methods should be in accordance to the different linguistic environments, the goals and the requests, each expression in the specific linguistic environment is most accurate. For example, there are many words which mean “to die”, such as “go depart”, “decease”, “pass away”, “breathe one’s debt to nature”, “be in heaven”, “and be with God” and so on. In the daily life, people are often not willing to say some kind of misfortune, particularly “the deatho express with euphemism.
2.8 Conventionality
After people’s long-term use, many English euphemisms have become the fixed expressions and English glossaries. As they are used widely in people’s daily life, which let people understand others easily when communicating with others, thus, this causes these expressions way anglicizing. Like “bite the dust” means go down in defeat; return to the “dust” means “died”. Some expressions with same
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On Characteristics and Application of English Euphemism
meaning expressions’ way are substituted by different euphemism unceasingly. Such as, mad which instead by crazy, insane, lunatic, mentally deranged and so on(刘寅齐, 2000:37).
3 The Application of English Euphemism in Daily Life
English euphemism obtained the widespread application. We may say that nobody can communicate with others very well without using euphemism in daily life. The following gives some explanations to English euphemism application.
3.1 In Occupation Application
In each kind of occupation, some make much money, some make little money, certain occupations are lofty, and some professions are dirty, painstaking, tired. In order to meet people’s psychological need, the occupation euphemism appeared. The main purpose of the usage of professional euphemism is to change traditional low occupations to be dignified. Euphemism is the way to express occupation which is widespread and varied.
3.1.1 To Raise the Professional Status
In western countries, the mental labor is regarded as the noble work, but the manual labor is regarded as the base and low work. The manual labor worker’s reward is far lower than the mental workers’. This characteristic is reflected in many professions. Such as, we call head-waiter “captain”; call dustman “sanitary engineer”; call elevator “member of the vertical transportation corps”; call technician “engineer”; call mechanic “automobile engineer”; call butcher “meat technologist”; what is more, the suffix “-ician” means the familiarity or is engaged in some item of academic professional personnel(王佳艺, 2003:13). We use “shoe rebuilder” instead of “shoe make”, use “sanitation engineer” instead of “garbage man”, use “utter maintenance man” instead of “dishwasher”, use “clothing refresher” instead of “washwoman”, use “animal control warden” instead of “boy watcher”, use “hair stylist” instead of “barber”, and so in. So the result of this is many words with this suffix appeared. Like use cosmetician, beautician instead of
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On Characteristics and Application of English Euphemism
hair dresser, use landscape technician instead of gardener.
3.1.2 To Beautify Coarse, Grating Occupation
This is to meet people’s psychological need, make the people to be easier to accept, and also cause these occupations sound be more temperate. If from some kind of angle, the funeral is one item lofty and the sacred work, but anyway, it needs to do with icy “dead”, sounding appalling(勒梅琳, 2005:17).So the fine reputable saying of “under-take” is “funeral service practitioner”, and we use “grief therapist” instead of “funeral director”.
3.1.3 To Use the Analogy
In the euphemism for occupation people often use analogies which make the humble name elegant. For example, “landscape worker” refers to “landscape architect”, “prison guard” refers to “prison officer”, “housing odd-job man” refers to “dwelling engineer”, “maid, housekeeper” refers to “domestic helper”, and “air-hostess” refers to “service manager”. There are many euphemistic expressions of professions.
Euphemistic expression Original expression tree surgeon (树木整形家) tree trimmer (花木匠) custodian engineer (室内工程师) floor sweeper (室内清洁工) mattress engineer (床垫工程师) bedding manufacturer (床垫制造商) exterminating engineer (灭鼠工程师) rat-catcher (捕鼠工) route-salesman (定向推销员) milkman (送奶工) daily help (日常帮手) charwoman (勤杂工) supervisor (监督员) foreman (工头) street orderly (街道卫生员) dustman (垃圾清洁工)
brush salesman (小物品推销员) door-to-door canvasser (串巷推销员) service salesman (服务性售货员) gas station attendant (汽油站服务员) table service man (餐厅服务员) busboy (餐馆勤杂工) aisle manager (商店铺面经理) floor walker (百货商店巡视员) night hostess (晚间女主人) telephone answerer (女生宿舍电话员)
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On Characteristics and Application of English Euphemism
captain (领班) waiter (男服务员) hostess (女主人) waitress (女服务员)
realtor (房地产经纪人) real estate agent (房地产代管人)
3.2 In Education Application
With the development of times, there have appeared many euphemisms in educational field, and these euphemisms are to manifest the fuzzy characteristic. In specific linguistic environment, these fuzzy usages can not cause the different meanings or create barriers for the human relations, but only expands the field of using the taboo language. Such as, “a stupid student” is called “a slow learner or underachiever”; when talking about below average student: She/He is working at her/his own level. It is better to say “can do better work with help” than say “slow or stupid”; and “depend on others to do his/her work” is equal to “cheat in clad”(刘寅齐, 2000:38). For those students who are lying we say “he has a tendency to stretch the truth.” And we use “special students” instead of “disable students”; use “visually retarded students” instead of “blind students”.
In school, there is no “poor children”, but children unable to see much beyond the necessities to today’s world because of the modest finance of the family”. And there is no “poor or lazy student”, but “children with untapped potential.” There is no “underachieves”, but “exceptional students”. And the fact that students have class is “classroom learning experience”.
Well, there are some euphemistic expressions in education: (1) He has difficulty in distinguishing between imaginary and fact information. (He lies.) (2) He needs help in learning to adhere to rules and standards of fair play. (He cheats.) (3) He is a bit slow for his age. (He is dull or foolish.)
Criticizing the student with these euphemisms, not only can it play the education role, but also can defend student’s self-respect. Thus it can reduce distance between teachers and students, and can make the in-class atmosphere harmonious. This shows the effect which should have in education.
3.3 In Politics and War Application
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On Characteristics and Application of English Euphemism
Because of the requirements of politics and war, the British and American politicians used some euphemisms to conceal the internal truth, and cheat the public. For example, the “Water Gate” is called “scenario”. Some American writers criticized that these euphemisms created from the “Water Gate” were demoralizing and hypocritical. “Time” even said directly, “These euphemisms all tell it like it is not.” The person who steals the information is called “plumber”; The person who is against government is often called “dissidents”; American and British people name “riot” as “disturbance” or “disorder”; “strike” is called “walk-out, down tools, industrial action or industrial dispute”; “economic crises” is called “recession” or “depression”. In the aspect of military affair, “the number of the dead” is called “body count”; “aggression” is called “pre-emptive action” or “involvement”; “rout” is called “phased withdrawal”、“strategic withdrawal”、“light and scattered action” or “break off contact with enemy”. The euphemisms for “to kill” are often called “to take care of, to dispose of, to remove, to rub out, to puff out, to put away, to touch off etc.” “U.S. overseas military employment” is called “American presence”; “civilian casualties” is called “collateral damage”; “bombing and blasting” is called “softening up the resistance”. People seldom mention “nuclear weapons”, but “an anti-personnel weapon”. “Non-nuclear weapon” is called “a conventional weapon”. American media called their invasion to Haiti by their marines “an incident”, called the investigation of American airplanes in Russian territorial air space “an over flight”. We can see the concealing function of euphemisms becomes the needs of the struggle, the tool of cheating people.
3.4 In Disease Application
At different times, in different cultures, the topic people abstain from is different, but for disease the fear is actually the same. The discoloration as talking about AIDS is the same when people discuss the cancer.
In order to reduce patient’s burden on one’s mind, sharpen patient’s psychology bearing capacity, strengthen their confidence to defeat disease, people have had a series of evasion view. So people abstain from or say the words and expressions to change external appearances, or touches indirectly. Such as, “terminally ill” is a
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On Characteristics and Application of English Euphemism
euphemism for “cancer”; American and British newspaper often name “sophist” as “social disease”; “leprosy” is called “Hansen’s disease”; “commit suicide’ is called “self-deliverance” or “self-violence”. Use “lung troubles” instead of “Tuberculosis”; use “the old man’s friend” instead of “pneumonia”; people with mental illness, we may not say mad directly, we should say “a little confused”; and people with deaf, we should say “hard of hearing”. We do not say “heart attack”, but say “heart condition”; V.P. (venereal disease); B.O (body odor); flue (influenza); polio (poliomyelitis); Big C (cancer); VD (Venereal Disease); TB (tuberculosis).
3.5 In Age and Weight Application
As the language building material the word has praises, censures and other semantic characteristics. Only when a word has the disgruntled semantics, it can be replaced by the euphemism. The word which is substituted is close to euphemism’s word in the semantics, but does not have the derogatory meaning or the negative semantic characteristic. This has the possibility to draw support from the euphemism negative factor to the positive factor. The age, especially a woman’s age, is regarded as a sensitive privacy. And most of the western people are afraid of getting old, so they call “old people” “senior citizens”. “old age” and “senility” can easily cause the fear of the old people. Some euphemistic expressions take the place of them, such as “getting on (in years), past one’s prime, feeling one’s age, second childhood, a distinguished gentleman, a grandee dame, third age”. The old people become “an elder statesman” or “old age pensioner” or even use initialing “OAP”. They are not “old” but “long-lived”. Old people’s home, of course, is not an ideal place for old men to live in. There are many euphemistic expressions: a home for adults, a nursing home, a rest home, a private hospital, a convalescent hospital. The old people who live there are called euphemistically “a resident”. In western country, it is very impolite if you talk about someone’s figure and weight without reservation. If someone is “fat”, “overweight” is after used to replace it. “weight-watcher” is also a euphemism for “fat” people. To female, “a fat girl” is called “a fuller figure or plump”; to male, “fat” is called “stout”; to child, it is
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On Characteristics and Application of English Euphemism
called “chubby”. On the contrary, if someone is too thin, euphemism is also used. To male, it is called “lean”, and to female, it is called “slim, slender, willowy or svelte.” The usage of euphemism which could eliminate people’s feeling of inferior and cowardice causes as a result of the body appearance, timid and other psychological shadows and could inspire the people to fill the self-confident acreage to live and work actively and happily.
3.6 In Sex Application
Nearly all languages consider “sex” a taboo word. In the west, when children asked their parents where they came from, their parents often answered the baby was a visit from the stork. People can say “pregnant” instead of “expecting” or “in the family way”; “fart” is also written into the dictionary. You can say it directly instead of saying, “wind from behind” It is just because of the movement of “sex liberty” and “sex liberation”. People can have a freer talk about “sex” than Victorian age. On the contrary, some other new euphemisms for sex appeared one after another. “Sexual knowledge” is called “facts of life”; “pornographic movies” is called “adult films”; “cohabitation” has become very common in western society. It is also called a kind of marriage: “trial marriage” or “unmarried wife”. Nevertheless, with the sharp increase of the rate of divorce, there appeared many euphemisms for divorce: “to break up”, “to split up, and “matchruptcy” (a blending of “match” and “bankruptcy”). And the homosexuality would be called “Greek arts”, “queer”, and “gay”. There is another interesting phrase “to go to Reno”. “Reno”, a small city in the west of Nevada, is famous for its easy and fast procedures of divorce. So “to go to Reno” also becomes a euphemism for divorce.
3.7 In Birth Application
Contrary to the Chinese traditional opinion, in western countries, “being pregnant” and “having a baby” are not considered “a blessed event”. Australian English even call it “a blasted event”. In America, “to wear the apron high”, “to wear/have the belly high” are euphemisms for “to be pregnant”, while in Britain, “to wear the bustle wrong” is a euphemism for “to be pregnant”. In 19th century, a
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On Characteristics and Application of English Euphemism
slim waist is the ideal figure for British women. Therefore, “to be pregnant” is also called “to be awkward”, “in a bad way/shape”; “to make a woman pregnant” is called “to spoil/ruin a woman’s shape”. Someone even called “to be pregnant” “to be caught” or “to be fallen”. Some vague expressions also show a kind of restless mood, such as: that way, in a certain/particular/delicate condition etc. The use of humor is another feature of euphemism for “being pregnant”. American people are likely to say “to have a watermelon on the vine”, or “to swallow a watermelon seed”. British people are likely to say “to have a bun in the oven” or “to have an Irish toothache” (to make fun of Irish people who are pregnant as commonly as having a toothache).
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On Characteristics and Application of English Euphemism
Conclusion
In brief, euphemism, as a variation of language, is applied everywhere in all human societies and interactions. Taboo, being a common social-cultural phenomenon, is actually the expansion of people’s self-protection psychology. The main function of euphemism is to replace taboo. In speech interaction, due to politeness or tact, one uses a pleasant, less direct word instead of something unpleasant. Euphemism is one of the ways people use to realize this purpose. So restoring to euphemism is speakers’ active pragmatic strategy at a certain time and on a certain occasion.
More importantly, euphemism embodies the civilization and morality of human beings. As people live in different times and societies, and the language they use belong to different categories, accordingly this kind of language variation created by them are varied, and reflect various social cultures and values. Language is dynamic and changing constantly. The most obvious change shows itself in vocabulary. New words and expressions appear as a result of social and economic development, old words acquire new meanings on account of certain new social needs. Euphemisms, as a language form, also follows suit.
The euphemism concealing has shamed in opening one's mouth to express the ugly fact. It has avoided awkward and the offensive phenomenon in the human relations. If we can apply the euphemism in the human communications properly, we will achieve respects from other people and manifest our own language tutelage so that we could be in the invincible position in the public relations and linguistic environment. What we need to do first is to understand its definition, characteristics, thus we can have the ability to speak the appropriate speech in the appropriate time and place.
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On Characteristics and Application of English Euphemism
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