《第3章 信息系统、组织、管理和战略》(下)

第3章 信息系统、组织、管理和战略 （下） （信息系统对组织、管理和战略的影响）P76

7. Compare the descriptions of managerial behavior in the classical and behavioral models.

The classical model suggests that managers perform five classical functions. These functions are planning, organizing, coordinating, deciding, and controlling. Although the classical model describes formal managerial

functions, it does not provide a description of what managers actually do. The behavioral models suggest that managerial behavior is less systematic, more informal, less reflective, more reactive, less well-organized, and somewhat frivolous. The behavioral models differ from the classical model in that managers perform a great deal of work at an unrelenting pace, managerial activities are fragmented, managers prefer speculation, managers prefer oral forms of communication, and managers give the highest priority to maintaining a diverse and complex web of contacts.

8. What specific managerial roles can information systems support? Where are information systems particularly strong in supporting managers, and where are they weak?

Table 3-4 compares managerial roles with the support systems. Information systems support the liaison, nerve center, disseminator, spokesperson, and resource allocator roles. Currently information systems do not support the figurehead, leader, entrepreneur, disturbance handler, and negotiator roles. Information systems are the strongest at the informational role and the weakest at the interpersonal and decisional roles.

如课件4.12所展示的，在实践中，人们通过观察已经发现，一些管理信息系统可以帮助管理者扮演好一些管理角色，包括：联络人角色、神经中枢角色、信息传播者角色、组织发言人角色和资源分配者角色。但是，现有的管理信息系统，由于技术上的原因和相关管理理论的缺乏，还不能很好地支持管理者扮演好另外五类角色，即：组织形象代言人角色、领导者角色、企业家角色、动乱处理者角色和谈判者角色。总的来说，目前的管理信息系统，在支持管理者扮演好信息角色方面，支持力度最强，而在人际较色和决策角色方面，支持力度还比较弱。

9. Compare individual and organizational models of decision making.

Individual models of decision making assume that human beings are in some

sense rational, although there are a number of individual models. The rational model assumes that individuals can identify goals, rank all possible

alternatives, and then select the alternative that contributes the most. However, some research finds that this process is too complex, that individuals cannot possibly specify all alternatives, much less select the best. Research suggests that systematic decision makers structure the decision based on some formal method. On the other hand, intuitive decision makers use many different approaches and use trial and error to find a solution.

Organizational decision making considers the structural and political characteristics of an organization. Organizational models suggest that decisions are not made individually, but are made by groups or the organization. The bureaucratic model of decision making suggests that

decisions are shaped by the organization’s standard operating procedures. The political models of decision making suggest that decisions result from

competition and bargaining among the organization’s interest groups and key leaders. The garbage can model suggests that organizations are not rational and that decisions are solutions that become attached to problems for accidental reasons.

10. What is the impact of the Internet on organizations and the process of management?

The Internet increases the accessibility, storage, and distribution of

information and knowledge for organizations; nearly any information can be available anywhere at any time. The Internet increases the scope, depth, and range of information and knowledge storage. It lowers the cost and raises the quality of information and knowledge distribution, that is, it lowers transaction and information acquisition costs. By using the Internet, organizations may reduce several levels of management, enabling closer and quicker

communication between upper levels of management and the lower levels. The Internet also lowers agency costs.

11. Describe appropriate models for analyzing strategy at the business level, and the types of strategies and information systems that can be used to compete at this level.(此题变为：企业在业务级战略管理活动中，都有哪些通用战略，举例说明哪些企业的哪些管理信息系统能支持这些通用战略。)

Low-cost producer, product differentiation, and focused differentiation are three generic strategies available at the business level. If a business pursues the low-cost producer strategy, it can evaluate its value chain to identify

primary and secondary activities where information technology can effectively help the business obtain a competitive advantage. Strategic information

systems help a company offer its products and services at a lower cost than its

competitors, or strategic information systems enable the company to provide more value at the same cost as its competitors. Strategic information systems enable the company to improve its internal value chain, as well as establish tight, efficient linkages with its suppliers, customers, and business partners. Additionally, a company can participate in a value web.

Firms pursuing a product differentiation strategy use information systems to create new products and services. These products and services are not easily duplicated by competitors, and therefore, the company does not need to compete on the basis of cost.

A company pursuing a focused differentiation strategy develops new market niches for its specialized products and services. The company competes in this target market by offering its products and services in a superior manner. A company can use strategic information systems to “mine” for information about a particular market or group of customers. The strategic information systems enable the company to analyze customer buying patterns, tastes, and preferences.

Companies can use their strategic information systems to establish tight linkages to customers and suppliers. Companies can use their strategic

information systems to create efficient customer response systems, switching costs, and in some instances, stockless inventories.

企业的战略管理活动按照活动牵扯的范围，可以分为三级，即：业务级战略、企业级战略和行业级战略。在业务级战略活动中，成本领先战略、差异化战略和目标集聚战略是三个通用的策略。企业利用信息技术，可开发出管理信息系统以帮助企业实现这三个通用策略。比如，好又多的收银台系统大概可以算作企业利用管理信息系统降低收银业务的运营成本，从而获取竞争优势的一个例子。而Dell计算机公司利用B2C网站搜集客户的个性化需求信息，为顾客量身定做个人计算机或服务器，则是典型的利用信息技术实现差异化竞争战略的例子。美国某地的沃尔玛门店利用一个基于数据挖掘技术的管理信息系统，锁定周五爸爸球迷顾客，将啤酒和纸尿裤在货架排放上作出特殊安排的案例，则是利用信息系统实现目标集聚战略的一个范例。

12. Describe appropriate strategies for the firm level and how information systems can help companies compete at this level.（请大家自己看下面的文字，英文的。）

A firm is typically a collection of businesses that are organized financially as a collection of strategic business units. Information systems can enhance the integration of separate units into a whole (synergy). Also, information systems

can allow different business units to share information in the organization’s core competencies.

13. How can the competitive forces model, information partnerships, business ecosystems, and the network economics be used to identify strategies at the industry level?

These industry-level models help a company answer the key strategic question of “How and when should we compete with as opposed to cooperate with others in the industry?”

Firms can form information partnerships and even link their information systems to achieve unique synergies. An information partnership enables

companies to join forces without actually merging by sharing information. For example, these partnerships can help firms gain access to new customers as can be seen in the partnership between American Airlines and Citibank.

The competitive forces model explains the interaction of external influences (threats and opportunities) that affect an organizations strategy and ability to compete. The threats include new entrants into the market, pressure from substitute products and services, bargaining power of customers, and

positioning of traditional industry competitors. Information systems are used at this level to develop industry-wide standards for exchanging information or business transactions, create value webs, and create industry-wide, IT-supported consortia, symposia, and communications networks for coordinating activities.

Traditionally, the more any given resource is applied to production, the lower the marginal gain, until additional inputs do not produce additional outputs (the law of diminishing returns). However, some situations exist where adding additional participants adds almost nothing to costs. One common example is when the telephone company adds another person to its network. The company has almost no additional continuing costs. Finding such

opportunities will benefit a company. For example Microsoft Corporation supports a community of software developers around the world who support local companies in making better use of Microsoft products. Adding an additional developer, or many new developers, costs Microsoft almost nothing.

The business ecosystem model builds on the idea of the value web, and emphasizes that corporation takes place across many industries rather than many firms. For example, Microsoft provides platforms composed of

information systems, technologies, and services that thousands of other firms in different industries use to enhance their own capabilities.

The network economics model suggests that in a network the addition of another participant entails zero marginal costs but can create much larger marginal gain. For instance, the Internet can be used to build communities of users.

14. How have the value chain and competitive forces models changed as a result of the Internet and the emergence of digital firms?

Internet technology has enabled a firm to extend the concept of its value chain to include all of the firm’s suppliers and business partners into a single Web. The main reason for this is that the Internet greatly reduces the cost of

connecting online with partners. This enables companies to work directly with companies around the world and with companies too small to build their own international network. The same is true with digital firms because they essentially exist mainly because they can operate over the Net.

Similarly, because of the Internet and digital firms, corporations find it

cheaper and easier to relate to suppliers and customers, enabling the company to meet the competitive problem identified using the competitive forces model. The competitive forces model has also changed in the Internet era because firms do not just compete with each other within the same industry; they compete as part of industry sets.

15. Describe the management challenges posed by the role of information systems in organizations and suggest some solutions.

Information systems are closely intertwined with an organization’s structure, culture, and business processes. New systems disrupt established patterns of work and power relationships, so there is often considerable resistance to them when they are introduced.

Implementing strategic systems often requires extensive organizational change and a transition from one sociotechnical level to another. Such changes are called strategic transitions and are often difficult and painful to achieve. Moreover, not all strategic systems are profitable, and they can be expensive and difficult to build because they can entail massive sociotechnical changes within the organization. Many strategic information systems are easily copied by other firms so that strategic advantage is not always sustainable. The complex relationship between information systems, organizational performance, and decision making must be carefully managed.

In suggesting solutions, students should make reference to page 103 –

Performing a Strategic Systems Analysis. Listed on this page they will find questions that managers should be asking.